نشریه نقد زبان و ادبیات خارجی
سال نوزدهم شماره 28 (بهار و تابستان 1401)

One of the main reasons for the error in the formation of relative clauses (RC) by Persian language learners who are learning German is the use of the relative pronoun to construct RC in German. In German, the relative pronoun agrees in both gender and number with the word it refers to, while Persian only uses the conjunction "ke" which has no syntactic or semantic connection with the RC it makes. The strategies used to construct RC ​​are also quite different in these two languages. Based on the hypothesis of the present study, it seems that most of the errors in the construction of RC in German occur in two parts: On the one hand, there is the incorrect choice of the relative pronoun by language learners, the reason for which may lie in not using a relative pronoun in Persian. On the other hand, another mistake that can be expected is choosing an irrelevant strategy to make RC. Through analyzing the RC used in the present study, we seek to determine the type(s) of frequent errors in the construction of RC and demonstrate that the results of typological studies can improve the process of foreign and second language teaching.

RC in German and Persian have been investigated in several studies. Lehmann (1977), a German linguist, discusses the differences between the construction of restrictive and non-restrictive RC in Persian and how they are shown in the head inside the relative clause. On the other hand, Mahmoudi (2014) deals with the clitic "ye" in the head of RC which functions as an article in Persian. Mahmoudi (2019) also deals with the issue of elements in descriptive RC. Bahrami (2021) has focused on RC in Persian from a typological point of view. In this research, in addition to showing the common strategies in making RC, a comparison has been made with other languages. This study shows that contrary to what is stated in many categories, the Persian language uses several strategies in constructing RC. Also, Voigtmann and Speyer (2021) have dealt with the issue of the correlation between information density and extraposition of RC. In this article, in addition to showing the characteristics of RC in German, it is concluded that the higher the information density is, the more likely the RC is to be extrapolated.

To indicate the type of errors of language learners whose mother tongue is Persian in constructing RC, the teachers of three German language classes were asked to provide the sentences that the students have made in their class exercises. A total of 59 language learners, including 32 female learners and 27 male language learners, participated in this study. The youngest learner was 16 years old and the oldest was 50 years old. A total of 1339 RC were collected and examined in the first phase of this research.

Having examined the types of errors in RC used in the present study, we observed that out of 191 errors, 145 errors were directly related to our research hypothesis. In other words, most of the errors made in RC are due to the differences in typological strategies used in Persian and German. On the other hand, a hypothesis was raised in the introduction of this paper, stating that due to the similarities between the position of the verb in RC and the posterior position of RC in Persian and German, no error is expected in this section. Contrary to this prediction, it was observed that 44 of the errors related to the research question belonged to an error in the position of RC. Also, in 12 cases, errors were observed in the position of the verbs used in RC. In addition, in this study, we also identified other types of errors that are not related to the typological strategies used in the construction of RC.

One of the main reasons for the error in the formation of relative clauses (RC) by Persian language learners who are learning German is the use of the relative pronoun to construct RC in German. In German, the relative pronoun agrees in both gender and number with the word it refers to, while Persian only uses the conjunction "ke" which has no syntactic or semantic connection with the RC it makes. The strategies used to construct RC are also quite different in these two languages. Based on the hypothesis of the present study, it seems that most of the errors in the construction of RC in German occur in two parts: On the one hand, there is the incorrect choice of the relative pronoun by language learners, the reason for which may lie in not using a relative pronoun in Persian. On the other hand, another mistake that can be expected is choosing an irrelevant strategy to make RC. Through analyzing the RC used in the present study, we seek to determine the type(s) of frequent errors in the construction of RC and demonstrate that the results of typological studies can improve the process of foreign and second language teaching.

RC in German and Persian have been investigated in several studies. Lehmann (1977), a German linguist, discusses the differences between the construction of restrictive and non-restrictive RC in Persian and how they are shown in the head inside the relative clause. On the other hand, Mahmoudi (2014) deals with the clitic "ye" in the head of RC which functions as an article in Persian. Mahmoudi (2019) also deals with the issue of elements in descriptive RC. Bahrami (2021) has focused on RC in Persian from a typological point of view. In this research, in addition to showing the common strategies in making RC, a comparison has been made with other languages. This study shows that contrary to what is stated in many categories, Persian language uses several strategies in constructing RC.

In order to indicate the type of errors of language learners whose mother tongue is Persian in constructing RC, the teachers of three German language classes were asked to provide the sentences that the students have made in their class exercises. A total of 59 language learners, including 32 female learners and 27 male language learners, participated in this study. The youngest learner was 16 years old and the oldest was 50 years old. A total of 1339 RC were collected and examined in the first phase of this research.

Having examined the types of errors in RC used in the present study, we observed that out of 191 errors, 145 errors were directly related to our research hypothesis. In other words, most of the errors made in RC are due to the differences in typological strategies used in Persian and German. On the other hand, a hypothesis was raised in the introduction of this paper, stating that due to the similarities between the position of the verb in RC and the posterior position of RC in Persian and German, no error is expected in this section. Contrary to this prediction, it was observed that 44 of the errors related to the research question belonged to an error in the position of RC. Also, in 12 cases, errors were observed in the position of the verbs used in RC. In addition, in this study, we also identified other types of errors that are not related to the typological strategies used in the construction of RC.

The Room, written in 1957 but published in 1960 is Harold Pinter’s first work and in a way includes the most frequently encountered theme of his other plays: an anxious and frightened character exposed to the possible threats of the external world emerging apparently from nowhere. In this article, it is reasoned that one of the causes of the anxiety of its leading character is her personality problems which are rooted in her inability to successfully pass the development stages. Thus, the psychological theory focusing on personality problems can function as the theoretical foundation on which the latent causes of her characterization can be investigated. For so doing, Erikson’s personality development stages can be illuminating since it includes all the periods from childhood to old age.Background of Study: The Room has been discussed from various perspectives including ontology, economics, class struggles, feminism, and Freudian psychoanalysis. Such a variety testifies to the potentialities of the play. One of the approaches that can best investigate the motivations of the chief character of the play is Erikson’s development stages which cover all years from childhood to old age. In Childhood and Society (1950) Erikson introduces eight stages of development from childhood up to old age. The key to his theory is that in each stage human beings deal with a confrontation from which they should successfully pass and safely enter the next stage to finally form their healthy personality. The childhood confrontations in order involve fundamental trust against fundamental distrust, independence against shame and hesitation, initiation against guilt, and hardworking against inferiority. According to Erikson in the case of achieving the first part of each pair, the virtues of hope, will, purpose, and mastery will be acquired, respectively. The remaining confrontations which occur after childhood include identity against role confusion, intimacy against isolation, and productivity against stagnation and successfully passing those leads to gaining the moral virtues of loyalty, love, and care, respectively. The last stage which happens at the time of adulthood is the integrity of the self against despair and the acquired virtue is wisdom. For this play, the last stage is of crucial importance since Rose is a middle-aged woman incapable of making sound and healthy relationships with her surroundings.

Erikson’s developmental stages are taken to be the theoretical framework of the study for analyzing Rose’s psychological complications. Focusing on these developmental stages, the personality problems of Rose are analyzed to answer questions such as her proper growth stage, her actual current stage; the appropriateness of her present behavior and motives with emotional needs of her age, and the main incentive in her caring, mother-like attitude towards her indifferent husband, and the hidden motives behind her patent behavior. It is believed that answering such questions can shed light on parts of this play that have been intentionally kept in darkness and can offer a better understanding of the play. In attempting to answer the above questions the following concepts regarding the personality of Rose are considered and their effect on her motives, behavior, and overall personality are discussed: insecurity in the middle –age period, fundamental distrust, obsessive care, and isolation and confusion.

It is concluded that all her personality lacks are rooted in her failure in passing the related growth stages and in her inability in acquiring the related virtues. Naturally, her behavior is confusing, improper for her age, and full of anxiety, distress, and fear. As a middle-aged woman, she must be in the stage of productivity against stagnation but in reality, she is too far from this stage. She is unable to show the possession of virtues such as identity, intimacy, loyalty, and love. She tries her best to achieve the security she has been deprived of since her childhood even of her obsessive caring for her husband, but all in vain. Therefore, the theory of Erikson regarding the growth stages and their effect on the personality is exactly applicable to this play and helps the readers to fill the gaps of the play by understanding the latent causes of Rose’s actions.

By the advent of late twentieth century many experts and critics stated that the novel has experienced “an aesthetic sea change”, one affected by an inherent “desire to reconnect language to the social sphere” (McLaughlin 54). Dubbed as “Post-postmodern”, the new novels’ emphasize an engagement with the social world is perhaps something that promotes a more direct political engagement. This essay explores the literary representation of the spatial, temporal, and subjective relationships between the individual and a society increasingly dominated by the proliferation of reproducible images and spectacles. To this end, Franco Bifo Berardi's anatomization of what he knows as the latest phase of neoliberal-capitalist system or "semiocapitalism" would be used as the central theoretical framework in an attempt to answer the following questions: What does a return to social engagement mean for fiction as presented in the novels of David Foster Wallace? What the modality of the critique is in post-postmodern fiction as conceived of in the work of Wallace?

Along with other thinkers such as Christian Marazzi and Antonio Negri Berardi has conceptualized the relation between language and the economy and described the "subsumption" and the submission of the biopolitical sphere of affection and language to financial capitalism. However, Berardi opts to look for a way to resist capitalism, to achieve autonomy and tries to do that from the unusual perspective of literature. This critical perspective has been adopted in this article to reveal its implications in more depth when applied to a selected number of David Foster Wallace’s fiction and can be viewed as a new step in the interpretation of the post-postmodern novels. 

This essay scrutinizes the post-postmodern novel – as the emanation of language – as a suitable tool to combat semiocapitalism and to construct a strong social fabric that would affect personal and collective consciousness, consequently helping the emergence of social and political change. The focus is also on defining the formal and thematic elements of post-postmodern literature with emphasis on how the structures of such texts contribute to the critique of capitalism by compelling reader participation and response.

Post-postmodern novelists like Wallace often write huge, informationally savvy, and erudite novels asserting that in the age of semiocapitalism and proliferation of information there is more to incorporate, discuss and debate in fiction. Post-postmodern fiction focuses on the explorations of knowledge and information and the power, even the necessity, of narrative to help us order that information and to achieve the task of meaningfully staying informed in an otherwise meaningless info-saturated semiocapitalist condition. Consequently, by deeply scrutinizing the post-postmodern novels’ narrative and formal structure, it is concluded that these works are inherently oppositional to the contemporary socio-political system. The subject is also scrutinized from a different point of view: the incompatibility between economy and aesthetics. It is argued that aesthetics and political economy stand in a characteristic relationship with each other since it is utterly impossible to reduce the former into the latter.  While the contemporary economy is all about abstraction, aesthetics is all about the concrete experience of the sensitive mind. Post-postmodern fiction as a new manifestation of aesthetics with its rejection of unrealistic plots and descriptions is read as an attempt to help us achieve a concrete experience of the “real” world as an accentuation of fiction’s social impact or a line of escape from an all-pervasive abstract semiocapital context.

William Shakespeare, the Renaissance Dramatist, Influenced by the Bible, the Middle Age-Crusade-Renaissance relationship between England and Islam, and knowledge of Latin, with religious debates, inaugurates a new Islamic discourse in the tragedy of Hamlet based on the Holy Qur'an. In his discourse, the nature of the man, as the pure God’s creature, is cognized through the existence of vice and virtue of the soul, and the inherent tendency of the soul for virtuous perfection even after death, for some human beings, which is called evolution of the soul, thus re-creates a good human. In this metaphysical approach, based on physics, the relationship between matter and form is like the intrinsic relationship between body and soul in which the soul as the essence and body form, has endowed with movement and evolution, and in addition to life-giving, identifies the changing matter and body to which it always belongs. This is called hylomorphism which is the basis of Substantial motion, physical resurrection, and causality. Aristotle's theory of hylomorphism and Mulla Sadra’s Islamic views are examined in this religious discourse. This research results in, inter alia, the re-presentation of Muhammad (PBUH) and depletion of constant accusations.

Aristotle, the ancient Greek philosopher, is the founder of Islamic philosophy including transcendental wisdom while Christian thoughts have not been influenced by the Greek philosophies (Brague 252). Mulla Sadra as the founder of Quranic thought succeeded in uniting the four currents of thought, namely theology, mysticism, Plato’s, and Aristotle’s. Mulla Sadra’s thoughts are based on the Shiite religion of Islam including the principles of the Quran, Hadith, reason, and consensus leading to human salvation. Mulla Sadra’s philosophy is specific to the Quran in terms of an all-inclusive essential change such as ascending and descending purgatory and substantial change in everything, constant and new occurrence, and God as the pure cause (existential ontology). Additionally, purgatory in Islam is a place such as the grave where the souls of dead bodies reside (BRILL 100). William Shakespeare, the renaissance dramatist, was affected by the Anglo-Islamic rapport from the Crusades to the16th. Century renaissance in which different attitudes to Islam and Muhammad (PBUH) have been held. The allusion to Muhammad’s name is testified completely only in the Holy Quran and not the Bible. The Holy Quran was translated into Latin almost 5 decades earlier than Shakespeare’s time, and Shakespeare knew fully the Latin language. To get to know Bible, one should be familiar with the Holy Quran. The renaissance period was the rebirth of ancient Greek thoughts inter alia Aristotle, Plato, etc. pinpointing the evolution of man’s soul. Shakespeare attempts to inaugurate an Islamic discourse based on the evolution of man’s soul in this world and purgatory for some men to reach a virtuous perfection which results in a variety of findings.

Dolat Abadi (1388) in comparing Hamlet with Imam Hossein, considers both martyr and hero fighting against evil and cruelty traced in all human society which is targeted at accomplishing an ideal, religious and virtuous morality. This is deeply rooted in the mind of a true man which bespeaks the inclinations of a virtuous soul as well. Thind (2014) represents Hamlet as a true religious hero who has a faith in Christianity and the doctrine of the renaissance. Therefore, he is precluded from committing any evil action or crime for his revenge. In other words, his revenge is carried out for a promising achievement based on religion which destroys evil and leads towards virtue and morality. This revenge tragedy is different from its contemporary tragedies in terms of its moral and virtuous predispositions.

Considering Shakespeare’s view seems to manifest the Islamic Philosophy of Mulla Sadra originated in and was proposed earlier by the Greek philosopher, Aristotle, whose philosophy is based upon physics regarding the dynamic relationship between matter and form as an embodiment of body and soul, a comparative philosophical methodology hinging upon a spiritual-religious outlook has been selected for this study. It suggests, on the one hand, the antiquity of (Islamic) philosophy founded on the Holy Qur’an and Hadith with its specific categories hinging on the principles of existence and essence including God’s existence as the pure and first cause (existential ontology), and constant and new occurrences in substance as essential change dedicated to the Qur’anic thoughts, and on the other hand, the significance of the inspiring Greek thought. The philosophical theories of Mulla Sadra and Aristotle will be the foundations for our research method which are applied in the content analysis as observed in the behavior of characters in the tragedy.

The tragedy of Hamlet exhibits a virtuous perfection and enhancement of the soul for some men before death and in purgatory based upon the Islamic philosophy of Mulla Sadra which is rooted in the ancient Greek philosophies. Such a substantial change in man’s soul will bring about a myriad of findings among which one is noteworthy, i.e. a virtuous re-presentation of prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and depleting affronts carried against him by the west unaware of Islam and Muhammad.

Since motivation plays a considerable role in education in general and in learning foreign languages in particular, presenting a measurement instrument that could better reflect relevant self-imagery seems necessary. This study was conducted to validate a four-scale Second Language Motivational Self-system adapted by Teimouri (2017) and Papi et al. (2019) based on Higgins’ (1987) Self Discrepancy Theory in an Iranian context. Background study: Dörnyei (2005) proposed that the L2MSS was made up of three main dimensions: ideal L2 self, ought-to L2 self, and the L2 learning experience. The ideal L2 self relates to the kind of desirable qualities one wishes to achieve in the future. The ought-to L2 self refers to the attributes that others believe one should possess to avoid unpleasant consequences. The L2 learning experience deals with the contextual environment (e.g., the effect of teachers, peers, the field of study, etc.). The more precise one’s L2 self is, the more motivational force it is potentially to have. According to both Markus and Nurius’s (1986) Possible Selves Theory and Higgins’s (1987) self-discrepancy theory, individuals who have more specific and logical plans in their minds as to what they would like to become are more likely to make effort in achieving towards their goals. Similarly, the existence of desired possible future selves does not necessarily show motivational force. Instead, to conduct the motivated behavior, certain circumstances need to be met. For instance, it is not adequate for learners to have a clear image of their favorable future self. In other words, when trying to develop the measurement instrument to elicit learners’ responses concerning their self-guide image, it is necessary to investigate the degree to which it is salient in their real selves. The current measurement instruments of L2 self were unable to address self-concept in reality. For example, the instrument used to measure L2 self indicates that the questionnaire has to do with the construct of the ideal L2 self and usually asks questions such as “The things I want to do in the future require me to speak English”, “If my dreams come true, I will speak English fluently in the future” or “Whenever I think about my future, it is important that I use English” (Taguchi, Magid, & Papi, 2009). Most of the items do not properly reflect the tasks that EFL language learners need to deal with every day.

Five hundred ninety-nine EFL learners (Three hundred eight female students and two hundred ninety-one male students) studying English as ESP in IAU East Tehran Branch participated in the study. The researchers of the study selected the expectation maximization (EM) method to address the missing data. Data was analyzed using structural equation modeling (SEM) through the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) approach. The complete structural model for investigating the fitness of the model was drawn. The full structural model fits well with the data.

Findings confirmed that the adapted questionnaire showed an acceptable model fit. Reliability and validity estimates were also examined and provided satisfactory psychometric properties of the questionnaire. The four-factor correlated model including ideal L2 self-own, ideal L2 self others, ought-to L2 self-own, and ought-to L2 self others was a plausible measurement instrument for EFL learners.

The present article surveys Don DeLillo’s Falling Man so as to attest to the political resistance against the narrative of horror effected by the mass media in the wake of the terrorist attacks of September 11th 2001. The researchers are inclined to read DeLillo’s novel in the light of the mind-sets of the illustrious contemporary thinker Jean Baudrillard. Baudrillard emphasizes that we gain our access to events through the mass media, particularly television. Nonetheless, argues Baudrillard, what we see in real time is not the event as it actually takes place. On the contrary, it is little more than “the spectacle of the degradation of the event and its spectral evocation” which is far more magnified than the actual life ([Persian] Gulf War 48). Consequently, the truth begins to shrink and “the closer we approach the live and real time, the further we will go in this direction” (48-9). In other words, once an event is mediatized, it loses its significance and singularity for the commentary, modeling and packaging of the event become more important than the event itself. Baudrillard stresses that the public media privilege such matters as how to show the event to the viewers or who should interpret the event to what has actually taken place. The questions the article poses are that how the public media are terroristic in capitalist societies and whether the artist can display political resistance and counter-narrative against the terroristic narrative triggered by the 9/11 attacks. Background Studies: The novels which target the terrorist act of September 11 and its aftermath focus on such issues as pre-9/11 American society, terrorism, and traumatic experiences and living in the aftermath, and the War on Terrorism. Considering DeLillo’s Falling Man, a number of critics contend that Falling Man as a work of art cannot proffer political resistance in the post-9/11 climate. For example, Anne Longmuir argues that “DeLilloʼs treatment of Morandi indicates his rejection of the reclusive artist paradigm as politically bankrupt” (54). She acknowledges a kind of political resistance in Janiakʼs performance; however, she deems his work of art “defeated by larger cultural forces” (43).  Jonathan Yardley writes in a Washington Post article that in Falling Man, “DeLillo is merely piggybacking on Sept.11, counting on those vivid images cemented in our memories to give the novel the force heʼs unable to instill in it himself”. More radically, Kristiaan Versluys emphasizes that DeLilloʼs novel is “the most devastatingly pessimistic novel among all the 9/11 narratives” which not only fails to submit a resolution to heal the collective trauma in the post 9/11 New York Community but disperses the trauma “like a contagious disease” (14, 30). Versluys concludes that the “endless re-enactment of trauma presented in Falling Man allows for no accommodation or resolution” owing to the fact that September 11, 2001 culminates with “the collapse of everything that is familiar” (20, 21). Methodology and Argument: The researchers are inclined to read DeLillo’s novel in the light of the mind-sets of the illustrious contemporary thinker Jean Baudrillard. In Fatal Strategies and In the Shadow of the Silent Majorities, Baudrillard emphasizes that we reside in a transpolitical epoch whose salient characteristic is the pervasiveness of politics. In this era, according to Baudrillard, such terms as ideology, class, or state have been superseded by terrorism. Baudrillard insists that the mass media are tantamount to terrorism, and terrorism without the espousal of the public media is a nonentity. In this regard, claims Baudrillard, the media are terroristic for they target the masses. To be more precise, the public media are after people by means of simultaneously dispensing terror and galvanizing people into engaging in the intrigue of violence. The media propagate violence in the society. Hence, according to Baudrillard, the masses are the media’s confederate on the grounds that they are consumers of this terrorizing wide appeal. To him, “[t]he media are terrorists in their own fashion, working continually to produce (good) sense, but, at the same time, violently defeating it by arousing everywhere a fascination without scruples, that is to say, a paralysis of meaning, to the profit of a single scenario” (In the Shadow 113-14).Baudrillard gives particular prominence to the part the media play in proliferating terrorism. He emphasizes that the capitalist system sets out to perceive and interpret the terroristic event for its own benefits so as to motivate counter-terroristic attempts which, in turn, provide the state with a golden opportunity to overstep its jurisdiction. Thus, the capitalist society enjoys this prerogative authority and boosts its police forces and military programs. In addition to the capitalist state, Baudrillard states that the masses are also accomplice in this process due to the fact that they are enthralled with consuming fear. While terror is dispensed by the media in the system, the masses welcome and consume it in deep fascination, or as Baudrillard argues, the masses, then, enjoy the spectacle.Findings and The researchers render a Baudrillardian reading of Don DeLillo’s Falling Man and contend that the artist’s unmediated performance can proffer a counter-narrative against the oppressive and selective narrative of the media by entering into the collective political unconscious of the audience, bringing to the fore the repressed memory of the victims, and reiterating what took place on 9/11. Not only does the artist resist actively against the media hype which surrounds the post-9/11 world, but he fills the rift between the artist and the audience through his unmediated work of art. Hence, the artist proves capable of healing the post-9/11 traumatic injuries of American citizens by making them re-visit their traumatic memory.

Non-verbal elements are the invisible conduit for transmitting the personal ideology of the translator and other translators idiots (art director, editor, publisher, etc.). Due to a large number of translations of Silverstein's "Giving Tree" from English to Persian, and the various readings of its commentators, this work has been chosen for the subject of translation of this article. The present research seeks to answer, how non-verbal elements (images, micro-patterns, pagination, typography, and font color) interact in the translated books of the mentioned work. . In the field of children's literature, the interaction of text and image has always been considered by theorists such as Scott and Nikolajeva. The innovation of the present study is that it generalizes their interactions from the level of text-image relationship to the level of non-verbal factors. The results show that the interaction of non-verbal elements is of five types: symmetric, complementary, expansive, counterpointing, and paradoxical. The cultural distance between the original language text and the translated text, as well as the prominent position of image, pagination, typography, etc. in the children's book publishing industry, necessitate performing the research. and in this regard, This research aims to answer three basic questions in the field of Persian translations of “The Giving Tree” (Silverstein, 2011): 1- How can the Nikolajeva-Scott (2019)  Fifth Interaction Pattern, in terms of classifying types of image-text interactions, be generalized to, a model for classifying the types of interactions of non-verbal elements? 2. What are the differences and similarities between the different translations of “The Giving Tree” (Silverstein, 2011) in terms of the interaction of non-verbal elements (image, pagination, typography, miniatures, and font color)? 3- In the various translations of above- mentioned book, what are the types of interactions of non-verbal elements? Mohsenianrad (2014), while quoting Bosmajian's definition, considers non-verbal communication channels to be very wide and expands its scope from facial expressions to fashion, from symbolic actions to dance, theater, pantomime, and music, from the influential currents of time to the flow of traffic, from brutal hegemony to clever diplomacy. In Iran, the articles that have been done on non-verbal communication, which have focused on the non-verbal communication of stories, have focused on the body language and the way the characters dress. Unlike studies conducted in Iran, which generally focus on the non-verbal element of body language, the subject of leading research is the axis of space (such as the proximity of pages in pagination, the proximity of images, and the like), and aesthetics (such as typography, miniatures, etc.).Research through descriptive-comparative analytical methods, it compares semantic changes that the translation process has imposed on these interactions, with the original language text. The data in this article are taken from the original language book of “The Giving Tree”, by Silverstein, and the nine Persian translations of the book. In this research, in terms of non-verbal elements (image, typography, pagination, and font), each of these translations is compared with each other, and also the non-verbal elements of the translations, with their corresponding non-verbal elements, are adapted in the original language version. In this regard, the research expands the fivefold division of Scott-Nikolajeva, from the level of text-image interaction to the level of interaction of other non-verbal structures. This study shows that non-verbal elements enclose the text, like a glass frame, without being seen themselves. Many of the non-verbal elements of the books being translated are modified according to the culture and sphere of the target language.  Thus, the non-verbal factors in the various translations of “The Giving Tree” (Silverstein, 2011) may not be semantically identical to the original language text; That is, texts can find new meaning through the interaction of non-verbal factors in line with the ideology of the translator, translation editor, and second publisher.  Non-verbal image factors, pagination, and typography can enter into semantic interaction in five ways: symmetric, complementary, expansive, counterpointing, and paradoxical.When two non-verbal elements represent the same information, their type of interaction is "symmetrical interaction." When two non-verbal elements fill in each other's gaps, their interaction is of a "complementary interaction" type. To understand complementary interaction, the audience usually does not need conscious attention and receives this interaction, automatically and unknowingly. When two non-verbal elements expand the meaning of each other (usually the expansion of this meaning requires the conscious reflection and careful attention of the audience), then their relationship will be of the "expansion interaction" type. In the "hybrid interaction" situation, the two non-verbal elements each have a different narrative, and from their interaction, a new meaning is created, and without each of them, the decoding of the message is not accomplished. The most severe incompatibility between the two non-verbal elements occurs in "contradictory interaction."

IntroductionThe key terms “hegemony” and “counter-hegemony” were first suggested by Antonio Gramsci to describe the soft power in the hands of the ruling system. In Gramsci’s definition, hegemony is related to those discourses in which the ruling system’s values are included and attempted to gain the consent of people in a soft way. In contrast, counter-hegemony means those opposing discourses that stand against the hegemonic discourses and expresses the ideals of the people outside power. While Naipaul’s A Bend in the River reflects the dominant hegemony in colonial and postcolonial era, it is at the same time concerned with exposing the ruling values and producing counter-hegemony. Background of the StudyAlthusser was in search of the ideologies that help Capitalism live through human souls, and be dominant and omniscient in the citizens of his hometown. With the benefit of the constructive system of thought of Claude Lévi-Strauss and Jacques Lacan psychoanalysis and their combination with the traditional Marxism, Althusser was demanding an analysis of different ideologies that elegantly has framed the thoughts and ideologies of a society has satisfied them, and at the same time they are reproducing themselves in the same system. Althusser always had two main questions in his mind, which has framed his Marxist thoughts: first, how a society with reproducing its connections and relationships reproduces itself, and becomes stable through the passing of time; second, what makes the society ready for a social revolution.Methodology Althusser mentions two major mechanisms for insuring that people within a state behave according to the rules of that state: Ideological State Apparatuses (ISA) and Repressive State Apparatuses (RSA). ISAs are institutions which generate ideologies that individuals (and groups) then internalize, and act in accordance with. These ISAs include schools, religions, the family, legal systems, politics, arts, sports – organizations that generate systems of ideas and values, which we as individuals believe. Another is what Althusser calls the RSAs that can enforce behavior directly, such as the police and the criminal justice system. Although the ISAs appear to be quite disparate, they are unified by subscribing to a common ideology in the service of the ruling class; indeed, the ruling class must maintain a degree of control over the ISAs in order to ensure the stability of the RSAs.ConclusionThe main focus of the selected novel is confined to the reign of the "Big Man" and most of his methods for institutionalizing his ideological system by the help of ISAs. He is well aware that using force and violence alone cannot be done, so he resorted to indirect ideological methods to gain legitimacy and gain public satisfaction. These include projects such as "nationalism" and "extremism" whereby the property of citizens of the descendants of the Congo is confiscated. The government also launches a special kind of school and university, a quasi-modern educational system based on all-European models to train obedient and westernized young intellectuals who lack the creativity and power of analysis. In all of this, the President does not resort to force and RSA feeds such as prisons, police, army and European mercenary troops, wherever necessary, but secretly uses them as far as necessary. So as not to tarnish his image in the minds of his people. But the mistake that this coup dictator is making is that he cannot reproduce his ideology and address its weaknesses according to the needs of society, a principle which Althusser emphasizes. As a result, this method loses its effectiveness over time, and the revolutionary forces of the Liberation Army with their anti-modern ideology destroy all the gains of the former regime.

Like intertextuality, intratextuality is an important notion in textual analysis and narratological studies. It does not deny functional and conceptual similarities with intertextuality, which is a more familiar narratological term. While intertextuality seeks interconnectedness among hypertexts and hypotexts, intratextuality sets about to discover and decipher it within the structural totality of a single work. In other words, the emphasis is laid on self-reflexivity rather than other-reflexivity in that the objective is to unveil the connectivity that in-text narratives, sub-narratives and frame stories maintain through sustained allusions and dialogues. The major questions of the research include: What is intratextuality and what are its characteristic features? Are they discernible in the narrative fabric of David Mitchell’s Cloud Atlas? What structural and thematic roles, if any, do they play? Background Studies: Bakhtine’s Dostoevsky's Poetics (1929), Kristeva’s Desire in Language: A Semiotic Approach to Literature and Art (1969), Barthes’ Image-Music-Text (1977), and Genette’s Palimpsests: Literature in the Second Degree (1982) are among important sources on intertextuality and its principal categorisations. In his article "Moonlight Bright as a UFO Abduction: Science Fiction, Present-Future Alienation and Cognitive Mapping" (2011), William Stephenson claims that Michell’s sci-fi novel is highly polyphonic and multifaceted. In his article, “Speculative Fiction as Postcolonial Critique in Ghostwritten and Cloud Atlas,” Nicholas Dunlop argues that Mitchell’s postmodern novel harmoniously mixes different and heterogeneous narrative styles as well as typical aspects of sci-fi and fantasy novels. George Gessert’s 2005 article, “Cloud Atlas by David Mitchell,” predominantly deals with plot-development, characterisation, and story-telling techniques, beside such themes as inhumanity, slavery, and apocalypse. In Close Reading with Computers: Textual Scholarship, Computational Formalism, and David Mitchell’s Cloud Atlas (2020), Martin Paul Eve uses computer-assisted charts to analyse lexical and grammatical distributions in the novel to prove the unity and harmony of narrativity despite all apparent heterogeneities. To answer the stated questions, this narratological study first offers a brief digest of the term intratextuality, which recognises and endeavours to locate intertextual relations and echoes inside the narrative structure of the same work, and then probes its applicability to the Mitchell’s Cloud Atlas. Genette’s well-known hypertext and hypotext as well as his five-partite categorisation of transtextuality, comprising intertextuality, metatextuality, paratextuality, hypotextuality, and archetextuality are also contextualised in the novel. In addition, notions such as organic narration, self-reflexivity, self-allusiveness, symmetricality, and in-text relations are deemed pivotal throughout the mainstream discussions This research shows that identical characters and incidents, one way or another, keep reappearing in all of the six nested stories of the novel, thereby constructing a tightly-knit network of reciprocal references and allusions within its narrative structure. Furthermore, the sustained recurrence of such motifs as reincarnation, dominance, quest for truth, death and symbols and images associated with them in all narratives creates an intratextuality of self-reflexive themes, which reaffirm themselves in every new intratextual dialogue. Transtextual relations are also discernible in the novel, predominantly in the repeated titles of the six narratives in two halves of the novel, protagonists’ comments on characters and incidents in a previous narrative, and in recurring themes and motifs which expand and modify in every new appearance.

Culinary literary criticism is a new field that has gathered interest among many scholars around the world. The cultural significance of gastronomic representations in literary texts is usually interconnected with the issues of gender, race, and class. The current study examines the relationship between food and socio-cultural identity in Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s Purple Hibiscus in terms of Pierre Bourdieu’s sociological key concepts mainly in his book, Distinction (1984). Food practices among social agents signify their habitus and the form and amount of capital available to them. In his study, Bourdieu argues that the fine basis of distinction in the tastes of individuals in different social spaces is the opposition between the tastes of luxury and the tastes of necessity. It is argued how Adichie presents the motif of food and cooking in her work to depict the social positions, the cultural identity, and the distinct tastes of the characters.

There are some books and articles about the representation of food and its cultural significance in the works of fiction written by some African writers but the number of studies carried out about English works by Nigerian writers, particularly on the selected work of the present study is considered deficient. Bishop Highfield in his book, Food and Foodways in African Narratives (2017), studies African culture and history by rendering examples of the motif of food in some works of fiction by certain African writers. In his analysis of Purple Hibiscus, Highfield studies domestic violence and resistance through the characters’ food choices. In “Dining Room and Kitchen: Food-Related Spaces and their Interfaces with the Female Body in Purple Hibiscus” (2017), Jessica Hume employs the feminine space theories derived from the British feminist, Sarah Mills’ “Gender and Colonial Space” and the Australian feminist, Grosz’s “Bodies/Cities”. Sindhu and Lydia in “Food and Social Difference in Purple Hibiscus by Chimamanda Adichie” attempt to trace the characters’ differences in their social positions through their food choices; however, there is no theoretical framework in this short article, and the writers merely present brief descriptions of the plot of the novel with some related food images. J Santhiya in “Food as a metaphor for colonial power in Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s Purple Hibiscus” examines the effects of colonization on the characters’ food choices but there is a lack of theoretical framework in this article too. Methodology In Distinction (1984), Bourdieu pinpoints the interrelation between his main thinking tools by arguing that practice results from the relation between one’s habitus (dispositions) and one’s capital in a specific field. Bourdieu believes that the consumption patterns of the poor and the working class are identified as “tastes of necessity,” whereas the consumption patterns of the middle and upper classes are identified as the “tastes of luxury” (Thompson and Kaplan 833). Bourdieu’s distinction between the taste of luxury and the taste of necessity is also the distinction between food as “form” and food as “function” (196). For individuals in lower economic positions in a social hierarchy, the nourishing function of food takes priority over its form (Bourdieu, Distinction 196). In contrast, individuals with more economic capital are more concerned with the food’s form, that is, food is not consumed only for the satiation of hunger but also for the fact that it gives pleasure. The present study applies Bourdieu’s notions of habitus, capital, and field to study their relations with the characters’ tastes and consumption patterns in Adichie’s Purple Hibiscus.

Pierre Bourdieu’s views on habitus and the food tastes of different classes are traceable in the study of Adichie’s Purple Hibiscus. In this novel, the characters’ related fields, and the form and amount of capital available to them are manifested in their eating practices. The religious field has a highly significant influence on Papa’s and Papa Nnukwu’s culinary practices. The consumption pattern in Papa’s household represents the taste of luxury as Papa enjoys high degrees of economic, cultural, social, and symbolic capital. On the other hand, the consumption pattern in Aunty Ifeoma and Papa Nnukwu’s homes represents the taste of necessity. Employing Bourdieu’s words, in opposition to the functional food in Aunty Ifeoma’s home, the food in Papa’s home is served with all due form. Moreover, Aunty Ifeoma’s possession of cultural capital leads her to consume nutritious food prepared at the lowest economic costs.

Spectrum analysis revolves around the cultural works of the past that is due to the frequency and the residues of the past events. Spectrum analysis of the selected two novels, V. and The Crying of Lot 49, by Thomas Pynchon in the light of Michel Foucault’s Discourse Analysis and Jean Francois Lyotard’s Postmodern Condition is distilled due to the notions of harmonics introduced by Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier. The parameters such as frequency, amplitude, modulation, distortion and noise are among the most important matters for analyzing the trajectory of the cultural and historical spectra. Background StudiesOnly Pynchon’s novels presents mathematical-neurological characters to be subject to spectral analysis that submerge into pure noise that is liquidate the signal-to-noise ratio (Koch, 354). The signal to noise ratio measures the ability to reproduce the spectrum from the same sample, the same condition. (Saptari, 11). Schetzina sees contradiction and writes that Pynchon blames science at one side, and puts his works on the burdens of science at the other side (Schetzina, 63).MethodologyThis research is an attempt of spectrum analysis in the light of the philosophical notions introduced by two French philosophers, Foucault and Lyotard, as Discourse Analysis and Postmodern Condition Approach for the two selected novels by Pynchon, V. and The Crying of Lot 49. ConclusionThe spectra of harmonics of the past events such as World War II and its consequences as the traumas, the roles of superstition, education, and discrimination and racism are studied as like as mechanical waves.